| Anatomic abnormalities |
| Location | Disorder |
| Nasopharynx | - Choanal atresia and stenosis
|
| Oropharynx | - Cleft lip/palate
- Micrognathia (eg, Pierre Robin syndrome)
- Macroglossia (eg, in Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome or hypothyroidism)
- Pharyngeal masses
|
| Larynx | - Laryngomalacia
- Laryngeal cleft
- Laryngeal web
- Laryngeal cysts
|
| Trachea | - Tracheoesophageal fistula, with or without esophageal atresia
- Tracheomalacia
- Tracheal stenosis
|
| Esophagus | - Vascular rings
- Esophageal inflammation (eg, due to gastroesophageal reflux disease or eosinophilic esophagitis, causing dysphagia)
- Esophageal stricture (eg, due to severe esophagitis or caustic ingestion)
- Cricopharyngeal achalasia
|
| Neurologic causes |
| Category | Examples |
| Central neurologic | - Static encephalopathy
- Birth trauma/asphyxia
- Intracranial hemorrhage
- Encephalitis/meningitis
- Chiari malformations
- Traumatic brain injury
- Depressed consciousness (sedation, intoxication, seizure)
|
Cranial nerve palsy
(especially VII, IX, and X) | - CHARGE association
- Moebius syndrome
- Multiple sclerosis
- Guillain-Barré syndrome
|
| Peripheral neurologic dysfunction | - Vocal fold immobility (especially unilateral)
- Esophageal dysmotility
|
| Neuromuscular diseases | - Spinal muscular atrophy
- Muscular dystrophy
- Familial dysautonomia
- Myotonic dystrophy
- Myasthenia gravis
|
| Functional/developmental disorders |
| Category | Examples |
| Delayed maturation | - Prematurity
- Congenital syndromes (various)
|
| Idiopathic | - Neurologically normal infant with aspiration
|
| Other causes |
| Category | Examples |
| Genetic syndromes | - Trisomy 21 (functional immaturity, obstruction, and hypotonia)
- Cornelia de Lange syndrome (chewing and swallowing incoordination, gastroesophageal reflux, and microgastria)
- Cri du Chat (chewing and swallowing incoordination and weakness)
- Craniofacial syndromes (various)
|
| Tachypnea with upper respiratory tract obstruction | - Bronchiolitis (especially respiratory syncytial virus)
|
| Iatrogenic | - Orogastric or nasogastric tubes
- Tracheostomy
- Lung transplant
- Injury from surgical interventions or radiation
|
