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Ephedrine (systemic): Drug information

Ephedrine (systemic): Drug information
(For additional information see "Ephedrine (systemic): Patient drug information" and see "Ephedrine (systemic): Pediatric drug information")

For abbreviations, symbols, and age group definitions used in Lexicomp (show table)
Brand Names: US
  • Akovaz;
  • Bronkaid Max [OTC];
  • Emerphed;
  • Primatene [OTC];
  • Rezipres
Pharmacologic Category
  • Alpha-/Beta- Agonist
Dosing: Adult
Asthma, mild intermittent symptoms

Asthma, mild intermittent symptoms: Note: Clinical practice guidelines do not recommend nonselective beta agonists or oral beta-2 agonists, including oral ephedrine, for routine management and treatment of asthma due to their potential for excessive cardiac stimulation, especially in high doses (GINA 2023; NAEPP 2007).

Oral: OTC labeling:

Bronkaid Max: 25 mg every 4 hours as needed; maximum 150 mg per 24 hours.

Primatene: 12.5 to 25 mg every 4 hours as needed; maximum 150 mg per 24 hours.

Hypotension, anesthesia-induced

Hypotension, anesthesia-induced: Note: Ephedrine sulfate 10 mg is equivalent to ephedrine base 7.6 mg; ephedrine hydrochloride 9.4 mg is equivalent to ephedrine base 7.7 mg.

Akovaz, Emerphed (ephedrine sulfate): IV: Initial: 5 to 10 mg; repeat as needed to maintain BP (maximum total cumulative dose: 50 mg).

Rezipres (ephedrine hydrochloride): IV: Initial: 4.7 to 9.4 mg; repeat as needed to maintain BP (maximum total cumulative dose: 47 mg).

Postoperative nausea and vomiting

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (prevention) (off-label use): IM: 0.5 mg/kg at the end of surgery (Hagemann 2000; SAMBA [Gan 2007]).

Dosage adjustment for concomitant therapy: Significant drug interactions exist, requiring dose/frequency adjustment or avoidance. Consult drug interactions database for more information.

Dosing: Kidney Impairment: Adult

There are no dosage adjustments provided in the manufacturer's labeling; use with caution.

Dosing: Hepatic Impairment: Adult

There are no dosage adjustments provided in the manufacturer's labeling.

Dosing: Older Adult

Initiate at lower end of dosing range. Refer to adult dosing.

Dosing: Pediatric

(For additional information see "Ephedrine (systemic): Pediatric drug information")

Hypotension, anesthesia-induced

Hypotension, anesthesia-induced: Limited data available:

Note: For the parenteral product, two salts are available (sulfate and hydrochloride); ephedrine sulfate 10 mg is equivalent to ephedrine base 7.6 mg; ephedrine hydrochloride 9.4 mg is equivalent to ephedrine base 7.7 mg; clinical relevance of difference between salt forms is unknown. Parenteral products may be available in significantly different concentrations (eg, 50 mg/mL and 5 mg/mL); use caution.

Infants, Children, and Adolescents: Slow IV push: 0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg/dose; use the lowest effective dose; usual adult dose range: 5 to 10 mg/dose; repeat as needed to maintain blood pressure; maximum total dose: 50 mg (Atchabahian 2013; Taguchi 1996).

Asthma, intermittent; acute symptom relief

Asthma, intermittent; acute symptom relief (OTC labeling): Note: Oral bronchodilator therapy, such as ephedrine, is not recommended for treatment of asthma due to slow onset of action and high rate of adverse effects (GINA 2022; NAEPP 2007).

Children ≥12 years and Adolescents: Oral: 12.5 to 25 mg every 4 hours as needed; maximum daily dose: 150 mg per 24 hours (manufacturer's labeling).

Dosage adjustment for concomitant therapy: Significant drug interactions exist, requiring dose/frequency adjustment or avoidance. Consult drug interactions database for more information.

Dosing: Kidney Impairment: Pediatric

There are no dosage adjustments provided in the manufacturer's labeling; use with caution. Elimination of ephedrine may be delayed in patients with kidney impairment; the manufacturer recommends monitoring carefully for adverse events.

Dosing: Hepatic Impairment: Pediatric

There are no dosage adjustments provided in the manufacturer's labeling.

Adverse Reactions

The following adverse drug reactions are derived from product labeling unless otherwise specified.

Postmarketing:

Cardiovascular: Bradycardia, hypertension (reactive), irregular pulse (RR interval variability), palpitations, tachycardia, ventricular ectopy

Gastrointestinal: Nausea, vomiting

Nervous system: Dizziness, restlessness

Miscellaneous: Tachyphylaxis

Contraindications

IV: There are no contraindications listed in the manufacturer’s labeling.

Oral: OTC labeling: When used for self-medication, do not use if history of allergic reaction to ephedrine or any component of the formulation, concurrently with or within 2 weeks of discontinuing a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, or if you do not have asthma.

Significant drug interactions exist, requiring dose/frequency adjustment or avoidance. Consult drug interactions database for more information.

Warnings/Precautions

Concerns related to adverse effects:

• Cardiovascular effects: May cause hypertension if used prophylactically for hypotension (only indicated for treatment of hypotension).

Disease-related concerns:

• Renal impairment: Use with caution in patients with renal impairment; increased elimination half-life may occur. Carefully monitor patients with renal impairment for adverse reactions.

Special populations:

• Older adult: Use with caution in the elderly.

Other warnings/precautions:

• Self-medication (OTC use): Prior to self-medication, patients should contact health care provider if they have diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, narrow angle glaucoma, psychiatric or emotional conditions, seizures, thyroid disease, trouble urinating due to an enlarged prostate, ever been hospitalized for asthma, are taking any medications for asthma, depression, obesity, psychiatric or emotional conditions, or are taking any medications that contain caffeine, ephedrine, phenylephrine, or pseudoephedrine (eg, allergy, cough/cold, or pain medications). Avoid foods or beverages that contain caffeine and dietary supplements that have a stimulant effect. Discontinue use and contact health care provider if asthma is not better in 60 minutes or gets worse, >2 asthma attacks in a week, need >150 mg in 24 hours or >100 mg in 24 hours for ≥3 days a week, or if insomnia, nervousness, a rapid heartbeat, seizures, or tremors occur.

• Tolerance: Tachyphylaxis and tolerance may develop with repeated, prolonged, or excessive administration; temporary cessation of therapy restores its effectiveness.

Dosage Forms: US

Excipient information presented when available (limited, particularly for generics); consult specific product labeling. [DSC] = Discontinued product

Solution, Intravenous, as hydrochloride [preservative free]:

Rezipres: 23.5 mg/5 mL (5 mL [DSC])

Rezipres: 47 mg/10 mL (10 mL) [sulfite free]

Solution, Injection, as sulfate [preservative free]:

Generic: 50 mg/mL (1 mL [DSC])

Solution, Intravenous, as sulfate:

Akovaz: 50 mg/mL (1 mL)

Generic: 50 mg/mL (1 mL)

Solution, Intravenous, as sulfate [preservative free]:

Emerphed: 5 mg/mL (10 mL)

Generic: 5 mg/mL (10 mL); 50 mg/mL (1 mL)

Solution Prefilled Syringe, Intravenous [preservative free]:

Emerphed: 50 mg/10 mL (10 mL) [latex free]

Solution Prefilled Syringe, Intravenous, as sulfate [preservative free]:

Akovaz: 25 mg/5 mL (5 mL)

Emerphed: 25 mg/5 mL (5 mL) [latex free]

Tablet, Oral, as hydrochloride:

Primatene: 12.5 mg [contains fd&c yellow #6(sunset yellow)alumin lake, quinoline (d&c yellow #10) aluminum lake]

Tablet, Oral, as sulfate:

Bronkaid Max: 25 mg [dye free]

Generic Equivalent Available: US

May be product dependent

Pricing: US

Solution (Akovaz Intravenous)

50 mg/mL (per mL): $18.48

Solution (Emerphed Intravenous)

5 mg/mL (per mL): $3.48

Solution (ePHEDrine Sulfate (Pressors) Intravenous)

5 mg/mL (per mL): $3.48

50 mg/mL (per mL): $9.35 - $59.11

Solution (Rezipres Intravenous)

47 mg/10 mL (per mL): $4.80

Solution Prefilled Syringe (Akovaz Intravenous)

25 mg/5 mL (per mL): $2.96

Solution Prefilled Syringe (Emerphed Intravenous)

25 mg/5 mL (per mL): $9.00

50 mg/10 mL (per mL): $6.24

Tablets (Bronkaid Max Oral)

25 mg (per each): $0.19

Disclaimer: A representative AWP (Average Wholesale Price) price or price range is provided as reference price only. A range is provided when more than one manufacturer's AWP price is available and uses the low and high price reported by the manufacturers to determine the range. The pricing data should be used for benchmarking purposes only, and as such should not be used alone to set or adjudicate any prices for reimbursement or purchasing functions or considered to be an exact price for a single product and/or manufacturer. Medi-Span expressly disclaims all warranties of any kind or nature, whether express or implied, and assumes no liability with respect to accuracy of price or price range data published in its solutions. In no event shall Medi-Span be liable for special, indirect, incidental, or consequential damages arising from use of price or price range data. Pricing data is updated monthly.

Dosage Forms: Canada

Excipient information presented when available (limited, particularly for generics); consult specific product labeling.

Solution, Injection, as sulfate:

Generic: 50 mg/mL (1 mL)

Administration: Adult

IV: Administer as an IV bolus. Verify formulation prior to administration; available in vials requiring further dilution and also premixed syringes and vials (requiring no further dilution).

IM: For postoperative nausea and vomiting (off-label use), administer IM (Hagemann 2000; SAMBA [Gan 2007]).

Administration: Pediatric

Parenteral: IV: Administer by slow IV push. Verify formulation prior to administration; available in vials requiring further dilution and also premixed syringes and vials (requiring no further dilution).

Use: Labeled Indications

OTC: Asthma, mild intermittent symptoms: Oral: Temporary relief of mild symptoms (shortness of breath, chest tightness, wheezing) associated with intermittent asthma.

Note: Clinical practice guidelines do not recommend nonselective beta agonists or oral beta-2 agonists, including oral ephedrine, for routine management and treatment of asthma due to their potential for excessive cardiac stimulation, especially in high doses (GINA 2023; NAEPP 2007).

Rx: Hypotension, anesthesia-induced: IV: Treatment of anesthesia-induced hypotension.

Use: Off-Label: Adult

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (prevention)

Medication Safety Issues
Sound-alike/look-alike issues:

Akovaz may be confused with Adrenalin

EPHEDrine may be confused with Epifrin, EPINEPHrine

Rezipres (ePHEDrine hydrochloride) may be confused with ePHEDrine sulfate products

High alert medication:

The Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP) includes this medication among its list of drugs which have a heightened risk of causing significant patient harm when used in error.

Metabolism/Transport Effects

None known.

Drug Interactions

Note: Interacting drugs may not be individually listed below if they are part of a group interaction (eg, individual drugs within “CYP3A4 Inducers [Strong]” are NOT listed). For a complete list of drug interactions by individual drug name and detailed management recommendations, use the Lexicomp drug interactions program by clicking on the “Launch drug interactions program” link above.

Alkalinizing Agents: May increase the serum concentration of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Alpha1-Blockers: May diminish the vasoconstricting effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Similarly, Alpha-/Beta-Agonists may antagonize Alpha1-Blocker vasodilation. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Atomoxetine: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Atomoxetine may enhance the tachycardic effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Atropine (Systemic): May enhance the therapeutic effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Benzylpenicilloyl Polylysine: Alpha-/Beta-Agonists may diminish the diagnostic effect of Benzylpenicilloyl Polylysine. Management: Consider use of a histamine skin test as a positive control to assess a patient's ability to mount a wheal and flare response. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Beta-Blockers: May diminish the therapeutic effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Bretylium: May enhance the therapeutic effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Direct-Acting). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Bromocriptine: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Management: Consider alternatives to this combination when possible. If combined, monitor for hypertension and tachycardia, and do not coadminister these agents for more than 10 days. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Cannabinoid-Containing Products: May enhance the tachycardic effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors: May increase the serum concentration of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Cardiac Glycosides: EPHEDrine (Systemic) may enhance the arrhythmogenic effect of Cardiac Glycosides. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Chloroprocaine (Systemic): May enhance the hypertensive effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk C: Monitor therapy

CloNIDine: May enhance the therapeutic effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

CloZAPine: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Cocaine (Topical): May enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Management: Consider alternatives to use of this combination when possible. Monitor closely for substantially increased blood pressure or heart rate and for any evidence of myocardial ischemia with concurrent use. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

DexAMETHasone (Systemic): EPHEDrine (Systemic) may decrease the serum concentration of DexAMETHasone (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Doxofylline: Sympathomimetics may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Doxofylline. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Droxidopa: EPHEDrine (Systemic) may enhance the hypertensive effect of Droxidopa. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Ergot Derivatives (Vasoconstrictive CYP3A4 Substrates): May enhance the vasoconstricting effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk X: Avoid combination

FentaNYL: Decongestants may decrease the serum concentration of FentaNYL. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Guanethidine: May enhance the arrhythmogenic effect of Sympathomimetics. Guanethidine may enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Hyaluronidase: May enhance the vasoconstricting effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Management: Do not use hyaluronidase to enhance the dispersion or absorption of alpha-/beta-agonists. Use of hyaluronidase for other purposes in patients receiving alpha-/beta-agonists may be considered as clinically indicated. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Inhalational Anesthetics: EPHEDrine (Systemic) may enhance the arrhythmogenic effect of Inhalational Anesthetics. Risk X: Avoid combination

Iobenguane Radiopharmaceutical Products: Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting) may diminish the therapeutic effect of Iobenguane Radiopharmaceutical Products. Management: Discontinue all drugs that may inhibit or interfere with catecholamine transport or uptake for at least 5 biological half-lives before iobenguane administration. Do not administer these drugs until at least 7 days after each iobenguane dose. Risk X: Avoid combination

Kratom: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk X: Avoid combination

Levothyroxine: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Sympathomimetics. Specifically, the risk of coronary insufficiency may be increased in patients with coronary artery disease. Levothyroxine may enhance the therapeutic effect of Sympathomimetics. Sympathomimetics may enhance the therapeutic effect of Levothyroxine. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Linezolid: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Management: Consider initial dose reductions of sympathomimetic agents, and closely monitor for enhanced blood pressure elevations, in patients receiving linezolid. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Lisuride: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk X: Avoid combination

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting). While linezolid is expected to interact via this mechanism, management recommendations differ from other monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Refer to linezolid specific monographs for details. Risk X: Avoid combination

Oxytocin: May enhance the hypertensive effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Ozanimod: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Pergolide: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Propofol: May enhance the therapeutic effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

QuiNIDine: May diminish the therapeutic effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). EPHEDrine (Systemic) may diminish the therapeutic effect of QuiNIDine. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Reserpine: May diminish the therapeutic effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Rocuronium: EPHEDrine (Systemic) may enhance the therapeutic effect of Rocuronium. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Serotonin/Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors: May enhance the tachycardic effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Serotonin/Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors may enhance the vasopressor effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Management: If possible, avoid coadministration of direct-acting alpha-/beta-agonists and serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors. If coadministered, monitor for increased sympathomimetic effects (eg, increased blood pressure, chest pain, headache). Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Solriamfetol: Sympathomimetics may enhance the hypertensive effect of Solriamfetol. Sympathomimetics may enhance the tachycardic effect of Solriamfetol. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Spironolactone: May diminish the vasoconstricting effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Sympathomimetics: May enhance the adverse/toxic effect of other Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Tedizolid: May enhance the hypertensive effect of Sympathomimetics. Tedizolid may enhance the tachycardic effect of Sympathomimetics. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Theophylline: May enhance the stimulatory effect of EPHEDrine (Systemic). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Tricyclic Antidepressants: May enhance the vasopressor effect of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists. Management: Avoid, if possible, the use of alpha-/beta-agonists in patients receiving tricyclic antidepressants. If combined, monitor for evidence of increased pressor effects and consider reductions in initial dosages of the alpha-/beta-agonist. Risk D: Consider therapy modification

Urinary Acidifying Agents: May decrease the serum concentration of Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Indirect-Acting). Risk C: Monitor therapy

Vasopressin: Alpha-/Beta-Agonists (Direct-Acting) may enhance the hypertensive effect of Vasopressin. The effect of other hemodynamic parameters may also be enhanced. Risk C: Monitor therapy

Pregnancy Considerations

Metabolic acidosis has been reported in neonates following maternal use of ephedrine; monitor.

Untreated maternal hypotension during cesarean delivery is associated with adverse events, including maternal nausea and vomiting, and bradycardia and acidosis in the fetus. Ephedrine injection is used at delivery for the prevention and/or treatment of maternal hypotension associated with spinal anesthesia in patients undergoing cesarean delivery (ACOG 2019). Serious postpartum hypertension and possibly stroke may occur if administered with oxytocic medications.

Breastfeeding Considerations

Ephedrine is present in breast milk.

According to the manufacturer, the decision to breastfeed during therapy should consider the risk of infant exposure, the benefits of breastfeeding to the infant, and the benefits of treatment to the mother.

Monitoring Parameters

BP, pulse; monitor patients with renal impairment for adverse reactions.

Mechanism of Action

Releases tissue stores of norepinephrine and thereby produces an alpha- and beta-adrenergic stimulation; longer-acting and less potent than epinephrine

Pharmacokinetics (Adult Data Unless Noted)

Onset: IM: Within 10 to 20 minutes.

Metabolism: Minimally hepatic; metabolites include p-hydroxyephedrine, p-hydroxynorephedrine, norephedrine.

Half-life elimination: Dependent upon urinary pH; Urine pH 5: ~3 hours; Urine pH 6.3: ~6 hours.

Excretion: Urine (primarily unchanged; dependent upon urinary pH with greatest excretion in acid pH).

Pharmacokinetics: Additional Considerations (Adult Data Unless Noted)

Altered kidney function: Elimination half-life may be increased.

Brand Names: International
International Brand Names by Country
For country code abbreviations (show table)

  • (AT) Austria: Ephedrin meduna | Ephedrine medicamentum | Ephedrinhydrochlorid Aguettant;
  • (AU) Australia: Ephedrine aguettant | Ephedrine hydrochloride myx | Ephedrine hydrochloride sxp;
  • (BD) Bangladesh: Brodrine | Ephedrin;
  • (BE) Belgium: Ephedrine HCl Aguettant;
  • (BG) Bulgaria: Ephedrin;
  • (CH) Switzerland: Ephedrin labatec;
  • (CL) Chile: Efedrosan;
  • (CN) China: Ephedrine;
  • (CO) Colombia: Efedrina sulfato;
  • (CZ) Czech Republic: Ephedrin;
  • (DE) Germany: Ephedrin Carinopharm | Ephedrin meduna | Ephedrinhydrochlorid Aguettant;
  • (EE) Estonia: Ephedrine sintetica | Ephedrini hcl;
  • (EG) Egypt: Ephedrine;
  • (ES) Spain: Efedrina level | Hidrocloruro de Efedrina | Hidrocloruro de efedrina genfarma;
  • (FI) Finland: Efedrin | Efedrin aguettant | Efedrin stragen | Efedrin unimedic | Ephedrine sintetica;
  • (FR) France: Ephedrine Arrow | Ephedroides;
  • (GB) United Kingdom: Ephedrine hydrate;
  • (HK) Hong Kong: Ephedrine;
  • (HU) Hungary: Ephedrin pharmexim | Epherit;
  • (ID) Indonesia: Asthma | Efedrin | Ephedrin Hcl | Ephedrine | Ephedrine HCL | Ephedrine(b) | Erladrine;
  • (IT) Italy: Efedri C | Efedrina aguettant;
  • (JP) Japan: Ephedrine | Ephedrine hcl taisho | Ephedrine nagai;
  • (KR) Korea, Republic of: Ephedrine;
  • (KW) Kuwait: Ephedrine HCL;
  • (LT) Lithuania: Ephedrin;
  • (LV) Latvia: Ephedrin | Ephedrine sintetica;
  • (MY) Malaysia: Ephedrine;
  • (NL) Netherlands: Efedrine hcl | Efedrine hcl aguettant;
  • (NO) Norway: Efedrin | Efedrin aguettant | Efedrin NAF | Efedrin stragen | Efedrin unimedic;
  • (NZ) New Zealand: Ephedrine Hydrochloride Aguettant;
  • (PH) Philippines: Hizon ephedrine sulfate;
  • (PK) Pakistan: Efed | Ephedrine;
  • (PL) Poland: Ephedrinum hydrochloricum;
  • (PR) Puerto Rico: Akovaz | Emerphed | Primatene asthma;
  • (PT) Portugal: Efedrina aguettant | Efedrina level;
  • (RO) Romania: Efedrina Arena;
  • (RU) Russian Federation: Ephedrin;
  • (SE) Sweden: Efedrin stragen | Efedrin unimedic | Ephedrine sintetica;
  • (SG) Singapore: Ephedrine;
  • (SI) Slovenia: Efedrin sintetica | Ephedrine HCI Sterop;
  • (SK) Slovakia: Ephedrin;
  • (TH) Thailand: Ephedrine | Ephredrine;
  • (TR) Turkey: Efedrin | Ephedrin;
  • (TW) Taiwan: E Fdrine | Ephedrine | Ephedrinum;
  • (UA) Ukraine: Ephedrin;
  • (UG) Uganda: Ephedrine;
  • (VE) Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of: Efedrina
  1. Akovaz (ephedrine sulfate) [prescribing information]. Lenoir, NC: Exela Pharma Sciences, LLC; August 2021.
  2. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Committee on Practice Bulletins—Obstetrics. ACOG practice bulletin no. 209: Obstetric analgesia and anesthesia. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;133(3):e208-e225. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003132 [PubMed 30801474]
  3. Atchabahian A, Gupta R, eds. The Anesthesia Guide. San Francisco, CA: The McGraw Hill Companies Inc; 2013.
  4. Bronkaid Max (ephedrine sulfate) [prescribing information]. Pittsburgh, PA: Foundation Consumer Healthcare LLC; received August 2020.
  5. Emerphed (ephedrine sulfate) [prescribing information]. Lincolnshire, IL: Nexus Pharmaceuticals Inc; October 2021.
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  7. Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. https://ginasthma.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/GINA-Main-Report-2022-FINAL-22-07-01-WMS.pdf. Updated 2022. Accessed September 26, 2022.
  8. Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA). Global strategy for asthma management and prevention. https://ginasthma.org/2023-gina-main-report/. Updated 2023. Accessed August 23, 2023.
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  10. Hughes SC, Ward MG, Levinson G, et al. Placental transfer of ephedrine does not affect neonatal outcome. Anesthesiology. 1985;63(2):217-219. [PubMed 4025872]
  11. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP). Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma. NIH Publication No. 08-4051. Bethesda, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; 2007. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/guidelines-for-diagnosis-management-of-asthma. Accessed May 4, 2022.
  12. Primatene (ephedrine hydrochloride) [prescribing information]. Pittsburgh, PA: Foundation Consumer Brands LLC; received April 2023.
  13. Rezipres (ephedrine sulfate) [prescribing information]. Deer Park, IL: Eton Pharmaceuticals Inc; June 2021.
  14. Rothenberg DM, Parnass SM, Litwack K, McCarthy RJ, Newman LM. Efficacy of ephedrine in the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg. 1991;72(1):58-61. [PubMed 1824585]
  15. Taguchi N, Nishikawa T, Inomata S, Taguchi M, Yamashita S, Naito H. Hemodynamic effects of intravenous ephedrine in infants and children anesthetized with halothane and nitrous oxide. Anesth Analg. 1996;82(3):568-573. [PubMed 8623963]
  16. Weiss SL, Peters MJ, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020;21(2):e52-e106. doi:10.1097/PCC.0000000000002198 [PubMed 32032273]
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