- Infection
- Helicobacter pylori
- HSV
- CMV
- Helicobacter heilmannii
- Other rare infections: TB, syphilis, mucormycosis, etc
- Drug exposure (all probably worse when combined with NSAIDs or in high-risk subjects)
- NSAIDs and aspirin, including low-dose aspirin
- Bisphosphonates (probably when combined with NSAIDs)
- Clopidogrel (when combined with NSAIDs or in high-risk subjects)
- Corticosteroids (when combined with NSAIDs)
- Sirolimus
- Spironolactone (probable, no data with NSAID cotherapy)
- Mycophenolate mofetil
- Potassium chloride
- Chemotherapy (eg, hepatic infusion with 5-fluorouracil), molecular targeted therapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors
- Hormonal or mediator-induced, including acid hypersecretory states
- Gastrinoma (Zollinger-Ellison syndrome)
- Systemic mastocytosis
- Basophilia in myeloproliferative disease
- Antral G cell hyperfunction (existence independent of H. pylori is debatable)
- Postsurgical
- Antral exclusion
- Post-gastric bypass
- Vascular insufficiency including crack cocaine use
- Mechanical: Duodenal obstruction (eg, annular pancreas)
- Radiation therapy
- Infiltrating disease
- Sarcoidosis
- Crohn disease
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