ﺑﺎﺯﮔﺸﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ﻗﺒﻠﯽ
خرید پکیج
تعداد آیتم قابل مشاهده باقیمانده : 3 مورد
نسخه الکترونیک
medimedia.ir

Congenital muscular torticollis: Clinical features and diagnosis

Congenital muscular torticollis: Clinical features and diagnosis
Literature review current through: Jan 2024.
This topic last updated: Dec 13, 2021.

INTRODUCTION — Torticollis is the term for the clinical finding of a twisted or rotated neck. In Latin, the word "tortus" means "twisted" and "collum" means "neck." Torticollis, also called wryneck, is a common complaint in children and may be congenital or acquired.

The clinical features and diagnosis of congenital muscular torticollis will be reviewed here. The management and prognosis of congenital muscular torticollis acquired torticollis in children, and neck stiffness in children are discussed separately. (See "Congenital muscular torticollis: Management and prognosis" and "Acquired torticollis in children" and "Approach to neck stiffness in children".)

TERMINOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION

Congenital torticollis – Congenital torticollis is a postural deformity of the neck that develops prenatally (though presentation to medical attention may be delayed); congenital torticollis has muscular and nonmuscular causes (table 1) [1,2].

In a case series of 288 children with torticollis referred to a tertiary care orthopedic facility for evaluation of torticollis, 82 percent had congenital muscular torticollis and 18 percent had nonmuscular causes [2]. (See 'Differential diagnosis' below.)

Congenital muscular torticollis – Congenital muscular torticollis is a postural deformity of the neck that is usually evident by two to four weeks of age; it is characterized by lateral neck flexion (head tilted to one side) and neck rotation (chin pointed to the opposite side) (picture 1).

There are three types, in order of increasing severity [3]:

Postural – Infant has a postural preference but no muscle tightness or restriction to passive range of motion

Muscular – tightness of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and limitation of passive range of motion

Sternocleidomastoid mass (also called fibromatosis colli) – thickening of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and limitation of passive range of motion

Acquired torticollis – Acquired torticollis develops postnatally. It is discussed separately. (See "Acquired torticollis in children".)

EPIDEMIOLOGY — Congenital muscular torticollis is the most common form of congenital torticollis. The reported prevalence ranges 3.9 to 16 percent [4-6]. Congenital muscular torticollis is more common in males than females (male:female ratio of 1.5:1) [7].

ETIOLOGY — The etiology of congenital muscular torticollis is not known [8]. Malposition of the head in utero and injury to the sternocleidomastoid muscle that results in fibrosis have been proposed to contribute to its development, although these conditions are not always present [9-13]. A familial tendency has been described [14,15].

CLINICAL FEATURES

History — Important aspects of the history in an infant with torticollis and suspected congenital muscular torticollis include [3]:

Does the infant have a preferred head position or posture? Preferred head position or posture is the defining clinical feature of torticollis.

Type of onset – Congenital muscular torticollis has a subacute onset; abrupt onset of torticollis should prompt consideration of trauma or acute illness resulting in C1-C2 rotary subluxation. (See "Acquired torticollis in children", section on 'Atlantoaxial rotary subluxation'.)

Age at onset – Congenital muscular torticollis is evident at or soon after birth (though presentation to medical attention may be delayed); in children with onset at ≥6 months of age, acquired causes of torticollis must also be considered. (See "Acquired torticollis in children".)

The age of presentation varies with severity (eg, by three months of age in infants with sternocleidomastoid [SCM] type and between one and six months for infants with muscular type) [7].

Perinatal history – In observational studies, congenital muscular torticollis has been variably associated with being the first-born child, decreased fetal movement, oligohydramnios, breech presentation, forceps- or vacuum-assisted delivery, perineal trauma during delivery, multiple gestation (usually affecting the infant who is bottom-most in the uterus), and increased birth weight or length [4,6,16-18].

Feeding history – Infants with congenital muscular torticollis may have difficulty breastfeeding or bottle feeding on one side compared with the other [3,17,19].

Positioning of the infant during feeding and sleeping (ie, does the head always face the same way).

Time spent in the prone position while awake – Lack of time in prone positioning while awake may contribute to persistence of congenital muscular torticollis. The World Health Organization suggests a total of ≥30 minutes of prone positioning per day for infants younger than one year [20].

Family history of torticollis or other congenital/developmental abnormalities – A familial form of congenital torticollis has been described (MIM 189600) [14,15]; nonmuscular causes of torticollis also may be inherited (eg, Klippel-Feil syndrome, some forms of ocular torticollis). (See 'Differential diagnosis' below.)

Developmental milestones – Congenital muscular torticollis has been associated with delayed attainment of motor milestones in infants at two and six months of age; however, the delays appear to be more strongly related to lack of prone positioning while awake and to resolve by preschool age (3.5 to 5 years) [21,22].

Physical examination

Findings of congenital muscular torticollis

Unilateral – Examination findings of unilateral congenital muscular torticollis include:

-Postural preference with the head tilted toward one side and the chin rotated to the opposite side (picture 1).

In muscular and SCM mass type congenital muscular torticollis, the head and ear are tilted toward the affected SCM and the chin points to the opposite side [23]. Involvement of the right SCM is slightly more common than the left [7,10]. Head tilt away from and chin rotation toward the tight SCM may be a clue to nonmuscular causes of torticollis (eg, C1-C2 rotary displacement (picture 2)).

-Limited passive range of motion of the neck – When stabilized in the supine position, the examiner should be able to passively rotate the chin past the shoulders and laterally flex the neck so that the top of the ear touches the shoulder (figure 1) [17]; in infants with muscular type or SCM type congenital muscular torticollis, rotation of the chin in the direction of the involved SCM and lateral flexion of the neck in the direction opposite the involved SCM are limited.

-Palpable tightening (muscular type) or thickening of the SCM (SCM mass types).

In infants with SCM mass type congenital muscular torticollis, a characteristic mass may be palpable in the inferior one-third of the affected SCM. The mass is well-circumscribed and firm; it is often referred to as the "pseudotumor" or "tumor" of the SCM or as "fibromatosis colli" [24]. The mass may be the first sign of congenital torticollis in an infant between one and eight weeks of age. It usually resolves spontaneously by two to six months of age [25].

Bilateral – Bilateral involvement of the SCM is rare [24,26]. The diagnosis is challenging because the head tilt is absent, but brachycephaly (bilateral flattening of the occiput with shortening of the head in the anterior-posterior diameter) may provide a clue [17].

Evaluation for nonmuscular causes – Aspects of the physical examination that are necessary to exclude nonmuscular causes of head tilt in infants (table 1) include [3] (see 'Differential diagnosis' below):

Evaluation of extraocular movements – Children with strabismus, nystagmus, and other ocular abnormalities may adopt a head tilt to suppress diplopia or maintain binocular vision; ocular torticollis may occur with fourth cranial nerve (trochlear) palsy (picture 3), Brown syndrome (picture 4), congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles, Duane syndrome (picture 5A-B), spasmus nutans, refractive errors, or visual field defects [27]. (See "Causes of vertical strabismus in children" and "Causes of horizontal strabismus in children" and "Pendular nystagmus", section on 'Spasmus nutans'.)

Evaluation of the back and spine for other causes of asymmetry (eg, scoliosis, elevation of the scapula); assessment of the posterior hairline (low posterior hairline may be a clue to cervical spine abnormalities). (See "The pediatric physical examination: Back, extremities, nervous system, skin, and lymph nodes", section on 'Back' and "The pediatric physical examination: HEENT", section on 'Neck'.)

Neurologic examination including assessment of head circumference, tone, primitive reflexes, integrity of the cranial nerves, and functional motor symmetry; in a retrospective review of 173 infants with congenital torticollis, 25 percent had functional motor asymmetry that resolved in the majority of patients by two years of age [28]. (See "Neurologic examination of the newborn" and "Detailed neurologic assessment of infants and children".)

Associated conditions — Children who have congenital muscular torticollis may have associated musculoskeletal anomalies that affect management, including craniofacial asymmetry, developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH), C1-C2 subluxation, and brachial plexus palsy [29-34]. It is not always clear whether these anomalies are secondary to congenital muscular torticollis, are caused by or exacerbated by congenital muscular torticollis, or have similar underlying risk factors (eg, intrauterine constraint).

Craniofacial asymmetry – The maintenance of a head position with face turned to one side, as occurs in children with congenital muscular torticollis, can lead to positional deformation of the skull (deformational plagiocephaly, also called posterior positional plagiocephaly) and facial asymmetry [6,7,32,34-36].

Positional deformation of the skull usually consists of unilateral flattening of the occiput (plagiocephaly); it is best viewed from the top of the head (figure 2) [17].

Facial asymmetry may include unilateral epicanthal fold, anterior displacement of the ear, reduction in ramal height, and recession of the zygoma (with narrowing of the palpebral fissure and asymmetry of the nose and commissures) (figure 3) [17,37,38].

In a case series of 1086 infants with congenital muscular torticollis, 90 percent had craniofacial asymmetry at initial presentation (mild in 65 percent, moderate in 23 percent) [7].

DDH – Observational studies suggest an association between congenital muscular torticollis and DDH [7,29,30,39]. However, given variations in case-finding, the reported proportion of children with congenital muscular torticollis who have DDH ranges widely (from 0 to 20 percent [29]); the proportion of children with congenital muscular torticollis who have DDH that requires treatment ranges from 0 to 12 percent [30,39]. (See "Developmental dysplasia of the hip: Treatment and outcome", section on 'Overview' and "Developmental dysplasia of the hip: Epidemiology and pathogenesis", section on 'Other conditions'.)

Examination findings of DDH vary with age and laterality (table 2). (See "Developmental dysplasia of the hip: Clinical features and diagnosis", section on 'Examination'.)

Brachial plexus palsy – Children with brachial plexus palsy may have associated torticollis [40]; clinical features of brachial plexus palsy include weakness and/or abnormal posture of the upper extremity. (See "Neonatal brachial plexus palsy", section on 'Clinical features'.)

DIAGNOSIS

Clinical diagnosis — Congenital muscular torticollis should be suspected in infants with a preferred head position or posture, reduced cervical range of motion, sternocleidomastoid (SCM) mass, and/or or craniofacial asymmetry [3]. Early identification is associated with increased effectiveness and shorter duration of therapy [41,42]. (See "Congenital muscular torticollis: Management and prognosis", section on 'Response to therapy' and "Congenital muscular torticollis: Management and prognosis", section on 'Prognosis'.)

The diagnosis of congenital muscular torticollis usually can be made on the basis of history and physical examination in infants with characteristic clinical features, including (see 'Clinical features' above):

Head tilt, usually evident by two to four weeks of age

Reduced cervical range of motion (inability of the examiner to passively rotate the chin past the shoulders (figure 1) and laterally flex the neck so that the ear touches the shoulder)

Palpable SCM tightness or mass in the inferior portion of the SCM

Absence of findings associated with nonmuscular causes of congenital torticollis (table 1); such findings may include limited extraocular movements, nystagmus, chin rotation toward rather than away from the tight SCM, additional musculoskeletal asymmetries, etc

Imaging — We do not routinely obtain imaging studies in young infants with characteristic clinical features of congenital muscular torticollis (eg, evident at or soon after birth, reduced cervical range of motion, palpable SCM tightness or mass in the inferior SCM, and absence findings associated with nonmuscular causes). In unselected infants, the yield of plain radiographs is low (<1 percent in one retrospective series of 502 infants) [43,44].

Among infants with an SCM mass and atypical clinical features (eg, mass in superior rather than inferior SCM, SCM mass not well circumscribed, SCM mass not firm), ultrasonography of the SCM may be helpful in confirming that the pseudotumor is muscular in origin [10]. Ultrasonographic findings of congenital muscular torticollis include fusiform enlargement and hyperechogenicity of the involved SCM [45,46].

Anterior-posterior and lateral radiographs of the cervical spine may be warranted to evaluate the possibility of bony abnormalities (table 1) in selected clinical situations [2,19]. Examples include (see 'Differential diagnosis' below):

Infants with chin rotation toward rather than away from the tight SCM

Infants without a palpable mass in the SCM or obvious tightness of the SCM

Infants with craniofacial asymmetry, short neck, low hairline, or elevation or asymmetry of the scapulae

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS — The differential diagnosis of congenital muscular torticollis includes other causes of head tilt, limited cervical range of motion, neck mass, and plagiocephaly (table 1).

These conditions should be considered in infants with suspected congenital muscular torticollis who do not have palpable tightness or mass of the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle or associated perinatal risk factors (eg, first-born child, decreased fetal movement, oligohydramnios, breech presentation, forceps- or vacuum-assisted delivery, perineal trauma during delivery, multiple gestation, increased birth weight or length).

They should also be considered in children who present after six months of age or do not respond to initial interventions. (See "Congenital muscular torticollis: Management and prognosis", section on 'Management of refractory torticollis'.)

Head tilt/postural preference — Other causes of torticollis or postural preference in infants include [2]:

Vertebral anomalies – Vertebral anomalies that may be associated with torticollis include Klippel-Feil syndrome, congenital scoliosis, C1-C2 joint lesions, and hemivertebrae. Vertebral anomalies can be demonstrated on plain radiographs. Children with vertebral anomalies may have associated intraspinal abnormalities or abnormalities in other organ systems [47].

Clavicle fracture – Clavicle fracture is another cause of position preference in the neonate [48]. Clinical findings of clavicle fracture include asymmetric contour, crepitus, edema, decreased or absent movement of the arm on the affected side, crying with passive movement of the arm on the affected side, and visible or palpable callous (after a few weeks). Infants with clavicle fracture do not have limited range of motion of the neck. (See "Neonatal birth injuries", section on 'Clavicle' and "Neonatal birth injuries".)

Unilateral absence of the SCM – Unilateral absence of the SCM is a rare cause of congenital torticollis [49-51]. Unopposed action of the single SCM results in head/ear tilt toward the side with the SCM and chin rotation toward the side without the SCM; the single SCM may be hypertrophied, mimicking congenital muscular torticollis. Additional clinical features may include asymmetric contours of the neck, and prominent clavicle on the affected side [50,51]. In contrast to infants with congenital muscular torticollis, infants with congenital absence of the SCM have normal range of motion of the neck.

Ocular torticollis – In children with ocular torticollis, head tilt suppresses diplopia or maintains binocular vision, and may change with position. Ocular torticollis may occur in children with fourth cranial nerve (trochlear) palsy (picture 3), Brown syndrome (picture 4), congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles, Duane syndrome (picture 5A-B), spasmus nutans, refractive errors, or visual field defects [27]. (See "Causes of vertical strabismus in children" and "Causes of horizontal strabismus in children" and "Pendular nystagmus", section on 'Spasmus nutans'.)

Ocular torticollis usually presents later than congenital muscular torticollis (after development of binocular vision and head control) [52,53]. Infants and young children with ocular torticollis have limited extraocular movements or nystagmus and do not have limited cervical range of motion.

Central nervous system lesions – Central nervous system (CNS) lesions that may cause head tilt in young infants include Chiari II malformation (also known as Arnold-Chiari malformation [caudal displacement of the hindbrain]), basal ganglia injury (eg, ischemic encephalopathy) or cyst, and posterior fossa tumors [2,54-57]. Infants with CNS lesions usually have an abnormal neurologic finding (eg, cranial nerve palsy, recurrent vomiting).

Benign paroxysmal torticollis – Benign paroxysmal torticollis is a self-limited condition characterized by recurrent episodes of head tilt that may alternate from side to side and typically last for hours. It usually presents in the first few months of life and is often accompanied by vomiting, pallor, irritability, ataxia, or drowsiness. (See "Acquired torticollis in children", section on 'Benign paroxysmal torticollis'.)

Limited range of motion — Pterygium colli is a web of skin that extends from the acromial process to the mastoid and may limit range of motion of the neck. It may be seen in children with trisomy 18, Turner syndrome (picture 6), and Noonan syndrome [58], each of which has associated clinical findings. (See "Congenital cytogenetic abnormalities", section on 'Trisomy 18 syndrome' and "Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of Turner syndrome", section on 'Clinical manifestations' and "Noonan syndrome", section on 'Clinical manifestations'.)

Neck mass — Cystic hygroma is another cause of neck mass in young infants. In contrast to the SCM mass of congenital muscular torticollis, which is firm and does not transilluminate, cystic hygroma is soft and transilluminates.

Craniofacial asymmetry — Other causes of craniofacial asymmetry in children include unilateral lambdoid or coronal craniosynostosis [59,60]. Certain clinical features help to differentiate the deformational plagiocephaly that is associated with congenital muscular torticollis from craniosynostosis (eg, different shape of the head when viewed from the top (figure 2), palpable ridge along the affected suture), but imaging (ultrasonography or plain radiographs) may be necessary to determine if the sutures are open or closed [61]. (See "Overview of craniosynostosis" and "Overview of craniosynostosis", section on 'Positional flattening (positional plagiocephaly)'.)

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS — Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Congenital muscular torticollis".)

INFORMATION FOR PATIENTS — UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and "Beyond the Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer the four or five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.

Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We encourage you to print or email these topics to your patients. (You can also locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on "patient education" and the keyword[s] of interest.)

Basics topics (see "Patient education: Torticollis in children (The Basics)")

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Congenital muscular torticollis is a postural deformity of the neck that is usually evident by two to four weeks of age; it is characterized by lateral neck flexion (head tilted to one side) and neck rotation (chin pointed to the opposite side) (picture 1). It is the most common form of congenital torticollis. (See 'Terminology and classification' above and 'Epidemiology' above.)

Congenital muscular torticollis has a subacute onset. It has been variably associated with being the first-born child, decreased fetal movement, oligohydramnios, breech presentation, forceps- or vacuum-assisted delivery, perineal trauma during delivery, multiple gestation and increased birth weight or length. Lack of prone positioning while awake and failure to vary head position during sleep or feeding may contribute to persistence of congenital muscular torticollis. (See 'History' above.)

Congenital muscular torticollis is associated with craniofacial asymmetry, developmental dysplasia of the hip, metatarsus adductus, clubfoot, and brachial plexus palsy. (See 'Associated conditions' above.)

Congenital muscular torticollis should be suspected in infants with a preferred head position or posture, reduced cervical range of motion, sternocleidomastoid (SCM) mass, and/or craniofacial asymmetry. (See 'Clinical diagnosis' above.)

The diagnosis usually can be made on the basis of history and physical examination in infants with characteristic clinical features, including (see 'Physical examination' above and 'Clinical diagnosis' above):

Head tilt to one side with chin rotated to the opposite side, clinically apparent by two to four weeks of age (picture 1)

Reduced cervical range of motion (inability of the examiner to passively rotate the chin past the shoulders (figure 1) and laterally flex the neck so that the ear touches the shoulder)

Palpable SCM tightness or mass in the inferior portion of the SCM

Absence of findings associated with nonmuscular causes of congenital torticollis (table 1)

We do not routinely obtain imaging studies in young infants with congenital muscular torticollis and characteristic clinical features. In infants with atypical clinical features (eg, mass in superior rather than inferior SCM, SCM mass not well circumscribed, SCM mass not firm), ultrasonography may be helpful in confirming SCM involvement. Anterior-posterior and lateral radiographs of the cervical spine may be warranted to rule out associated bony abnormalities in infants with associated clinical findings (table 1). (See 'Imaging' above.)

The differential diagnosis of nonparoxysmal congenital muscular torticollis includes other causes of head tilt, limited cervical range of motion, neck mass, and plagiocephaly (table 1). (See 'Differential diagnosis' above.)

  1. Boere-Boonekamp MM, van der Linden-Kuiper LT LT. Positional preference: prevalence in infants and follow-up after two years. Pediatrics 2001; 107:339.
  2. Ballock RT, Song KM. The prevalence of nonmuscular causes of torticollis in children. J Pediatr Orthop 1996; 16:500.
  3. Kaplan SL, Coulter C, Sargent B. Physical Therapy Management of Congenital Muscular Torticollis: A 2018 Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline From the APTA Academy of Pediatric Physical Therapy. Pediatr Phys Ther 2018; 30:240.
  4. Chen MM, Chang HC, Hsieh CF, et al. Predictive model for congenital muscular torticollis: analysis of 1021 infants with sonography. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86:2199.
  5. Aarnivala HE, Valkama AM, Pirttiniemi PM. Cranial shape, size and cervical motion in normal newborns. Early Hum Dev 2014; 90:425.
  6. Stellwagen L, Hubbard E, Chambers C, Jones KL. Torticollis, facial asymmetry and plagiocephaly in normal newborns. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93:827.
  7. Cheng JC, Tang SP, Chen TM, et al. The clinical presentation and outcome of treatment of congenital muscular torticollis in infants--a study of 1,086 cases. J Pediatr Surg 2000; 35:1091.
  8. Sargent B, Kaplan SL, Coulter C, Baker C. Congenital Muscular Torticollis: Bridging the Gap Between Research and Clinical Practice. Pediatrics 2019; 144.
  9. Davids JR, Wenger DR, Mubarak SJ. Congenital muscular torticollis: sequela of intrauterine or perinatal compartment syndrome. J Pediatr Orthop 1993; 13:141.
  10. Lin JN, Chou ML. Ultrasonographic study of the sternocleidomastoid muscle in the management of congenital muscular torticollis. J Pediatr Surg 1997; 32:1648.
  11. Hardgrib N, Rahbek O, Møller-Madsen B, Maimburg RD. Do obstetric risk factors truly influence the etiopathogenesis of congenital muscular torticollis? J Orthop Traumatol 2017; 18:359.
  12. Chen HX, Tang SP, Gao FT, et al. Fibrosis, adipogenesis, and muscle atrophy in congenital muscular torticollis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2014; 93:e138.
  13. Lee SJ, Han JD, Lee HB, et al. Comparison of clinical severity of congenital muscular torticollis based on the method of child birth. Ann Rehabil Med 2011; 35:641.
  14. Engin C, Yavuz SS, Sahin FI. Congenital muscular torticollis: is heredity a possible factor in a family with five torticollis patients in three generations? Plast Reconstr Surg 1997; 99:1147.
  15. Thompson F, McManus S, Colville J. Familial congenital muscular torticollis: case report and review of the literature. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1986; :193.
  16. Hsieh YY, Tsai FJ, Lin CC, et al. Breech deformation complex in neonates. J Reprod Med 2000; 45:933.
  17. Kuo AA, Tritasavit S, Graham JM Jr. Congenital muscular torticollis and positional plagiocephaly. Pediatr Rev 2014; 35:79.
  18. Littlefield TR, Kelly KM, Pomatto JK, Beals SP. Multiple-birth infants at higher risk for development of deformational plagiocephaly: II. is one twin at greater risk? Pediatrics 2002; 109:19.
  19. Wei JL, Schwartz KM, Weaver AL, Orvidas LJ. Pseudotumor of infancy and congenital muscular torticollis: 170 cases. Laryngoscope 2001; 111:688.
  20. World Health Organization. Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep for chidlren under 5 years of age. 2019. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/311664 (Accessed on October 22, 2021).
  21. Ohman A, Nilsson S, Lagerkvist AL, Beckung E. Are infants with torticollis at risk of a delay in early motor milestones compared with a control group of healthy infants? Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51:545.
  22. Öhman A, Beckung E. Children who had congenital torticollis as infants are not at higher risk for a delay in motor development at preschool age. PM R 2013; 5:850.
  23. Han MH, Kang JY, Do HJ, et al. Comparison of Clinical Findings of Congenital Muscular Torticollis Between Patients With and Without Sternocleidomastoid Lesions as Determined by Ultrasonography. J Pediatr Orthop 2019; 39:226.
  24. Tufano RP, Tom LW, Austin MB. Bilateral sternocleidomastoid tumors of infancy. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 1999; 51:41.
  25. Cheng JC, Wong MW, Tang SP, et al. Clinical determinants of the outcome of manual stretching in the treatment of congenital muscular torticollis in infants. A prospective study of eight hundred and twenty-one cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2001; 83-A:679.
  26. Kustos T, Magdics M. [Bilateral torticollis]. Orv Hetil 1993; 134:2817.
  27. Boricean ID, Bărar A. Understanding ocular torticollis in children. Oftalmologia 2011; 55:10.
  28. Watemberg N, Ben-Sasson A, Goldfarb R. Transient Motor Asymmetry Among Infants With Congenital Torticollis-Description, Characterization, and Results of Follow-Up. Pediatr Neurol 2016; 59:36.
  29. Tien YC, Su JY, Lin GT, Lin SY. Ultrasonographic study of the coexistence of muscular torticollis and dysplasia of the hip. J Pediatr Orthop 2001; 21:343.
  30. Walsh JJ, Morrissy RT. Torticollis and hip dislocation. J Pediatr Orthop 1998; 18:219.
  31. Slate RK, Posnick JC, Armstrong DC, Buncic JR. Cervical spine subluxation associated with congenital muscular torticollis and craniofacial asymmetry. Plast Reconstr Surg 1993; 91:1187.
  32. Hollier L, Kim J, Grayson BH, McCarthy JG. Congenital muscular torticollis and the associated craniofacial changes. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000; 105:827.
  33. Pazonyi I, Kun A, Czeizel A. Congenital postural deformity association. Acta Paediatr Acad Sci Hung 1982; 23:431.
  34. Rogers GF, Oh AK, Mulliken JB. The role of congenital muscular torticollis in the development of deformational plagiocephaly. Plast Reconstr Surg 2009; 123:643.
  35. Pollack IF, Losken HW, Fasick P. Diagnosis and management of posterior plagiocephaly. Pediatrics 1997; 99:180.
  36. de Chalain TM, Park S. Torticollis associated with positional plagiocephaly: a growing epidemic. J Craniofac Surg 2005; 16:411.
  37. Jones MC. Unilateral epicanthal fold: diagnostic significance. J Pediatr 1986; 108:702.
  38. Mulliken JB, Vander Woude DL, Hansen M, et al. Analysis of posterior plagiocephaly: deformational versus synostotic. Plast Reconstr Surg 1999; 103:371.
  39. Joiner ER, Andras LM, Skaggs DL. Screening for hip dysplasia in congenital muscular torticollis: is physical exam enough? J Child Orthop 2014; 8:115.
  40. Hervey-Jumper SL, Justice D, Vanaman MM, et al. Torticollis associated with neonatal brachial plexus palsy. Pediatr Neurol 2011; 45:305.
  41. Demirbilek S, Atayurt HF. Congenital muscular torticollis and sternomastoid tumor: results of nonoperative treatment. J Pediatr Surg 1999; 34:549.
  42. Petronic I, Brdar R, Cirovic D, et al. Congenital muscular torticollis in children: distribution, treatment duration and out come. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med 2010; 46:153.
  43. Snyder EM, Coley BD. Limited value of plain radiographs in infant torticollis. Pediatrics 2006; 118:e1779.
  44. Boyko N, Eppinger MA, Straka-DeMarco D, Mazzola CA. Imaging of congenital torticollis in infants: a retrospective study of an institutional protocol. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2017; 20:191.
  45. Haque S, Bilal Shafi BB, Kaleem M. Imaging of torticollis in children. Radiographics 2012; 32:557.
  46. Kwon DR, Park GY. Diagnostic value of real-time sonoelastography in congenital muscular torticollis. J Ultrasound Med 2012; 31:721.
  47. Shah SA, Song K. Congenital scoliosis. In: Lovell and Winter's Pediatric Orthopaedics, 7th ed, Weinstein SL, Flynn JM (Eds), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2014. p.698.
  48. Nuysink J, van Haastert IC, Takken T, Helders PJ. Symptomatic asymmetry in the first six months of life: differential diagnosis. Eur J Pediatr 2008; 167:613.
  49. Adams SB Jr, Flynn JM, Hosalkar HS, et al. Torticollis in an infant caused by hereditary muscle aplasia. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ) 2003; 32:556.
  50. Vajramani A, Witham FM, Richards RH. Congenital unilateral absence of sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles: a case report and literature review. J Pediatr Orthop B 2010; 19:462.
  51. Raman S, Takhtani D, Wallace EC. Congenital torticollis caused by unilateral absence of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Pediatr Radiol 2009; 39:77.
  52. Gray GM, Tasso KH. Differential diagnosis of torticollis: a case report. Pediatr Phys Ther 2009; 21:369.
  53. Williams CR, O'Flynn E, Clarke NM, Morris RJ. Torticollis secondary to ocular pathology. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1996; 78:620.
  54. Marmor MA, Beauchamp GR, Maddox SF. Photophobia, epiphora, and torticollis: a masquerade syndrome. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1990; 27:202.
  55. Dörner L, Fritsch MJ, Stark AM, Mehdorn HM. Posterior fossa tumors in children: how long does it take to establish the diagnosis? Childs Nerv Syst 2007; 23:887.
  56. O'Brien DF, Caird J, Kennedy M, et al. Posterior fossa tumours in childhood: evaluation of presenting clinical features. Ir Med J 2001; 94:52.
  57. Tomczak KK, Rosman NP. Torticollis. J Child Neurol 2013; 28:365.
  58. The neck. In: Pediatric diagnosis: Interpretation of symptoms and signs in children and adolescents, 6th ed, Green M (Ed), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 1998. p.63.
  59. Huang MH, Gruss JS, Clarren SK, et al. The differential diagnosis of posterior plagiocephaly: true lambdoid synostosis versus positional molding. Plast Reconstr Surg 1996; 98:765.
  60. Raco A, Raimondi AJ, De Ponte FS, et al. Congenital torticollis in association with craniosynostosis. Childs Nerv Syst 1999; 15:163.
  61. Linz C, Collmann H, Meyer-Marcotty P, et al. Occipital plagiocephaly: unilateral lambdoid synostosis versus positional plagiocephaly. Arch Dis Child 2015; 100:152.
Topic 6284 Version 28.0

References

آیا می خواهید مدیلیب را به صفحه اصلی خود اضافه کنید؟